Facing Fear with Courage: Psychometric and Behavioral Evidence of the Courage Measure (CM) in Poland

Grzegorz Pajestka

doi:10.18290/rpsych2023.0015

Data publikacji : 2023-10-04

Tom 26 Nr 3 (2023)

Facing Fear with Courage: Psychometric and Behavioral Evidence of the Courage Measure (CM) in Poland

Grzegorz Pajestka

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5520-0347

DOI: https://doi.org/10.18290/rpsych2023.0015

Abstrakt

The Courage Measure (CM), developed by Norton and Weiss (2009) has proved to be a significant predictor of a behavioral approach in a fear-eliciting situation. The current research project aimed to replicate this result, using a shortened version of the scale, whose psychometric superiority over the full version has been supported by previous studies. For this purpose, in Study 1 the psychometric properties of the Polish version of the CM (CM-PL) were analyzed; the results supported its unidimensional structure and measurement invariance across gender groups, as well as good internal consistency. Study 1 also provided preliminary evidence of the convergent, concurrent and divergent validity of CM-PL, showing its relation to resilience, grit, risk-taking and the Big Five personality traits. In Study 2, 31 participants with an elevated fear of spiders completed a behavioral approach test in which they moved ever closer to a display of taxidermied spiders. The results showed that the CM-PL significantly moderated the relationship between anxiety/distress and the behavioral approach, confirming its relation to real behavior. Overall, the results confirmed that CM-PL is a valuable measure that can be useful in scientific research and psychological practice (i.e., counseling and psychotherapy).

Szczegóły

Bibliografia

Statystyki

Autorzy

Pobierz pliki

pdf (English)

Wskaźniki altmetryczne

Cited by / Share

Licencja

Utwór dostępny jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – Użycie niekomercyjne – Bez utworów zależnych 4.0 Międzynarodowe.

Bibliografia

Aquinas, T. (1947). Summa Theologica. (Fathers of the English Dominican Province, Trans.) Benziger Brothers. https://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.html (Original work published in 1485.)

Bacha, C. S. (2001). The courage to stay in the moment. Psychodynamic Counselling, 7(3), 279–295. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533330110067978

Benjamin, C. L., O’Neil, K. A., Crawley, S. A., Beidas, R. S., Coles, M., & Kendall, P. C. (2010). Patterns and predictors of subjective units of distress in anxious youth. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 38(4), 497–504. https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1352465810000287

Berinsky, A. J., Margolis, M. F., & Sances, M. W. (2014). Separating the shirkers from the workers? Making sure respondents pay attention on self‐administered surveys. American Journal of Political Science, 58(3), 739–753. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12081

Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. Guilford.

Byrne, B. M., Shavelson, R. J., & Muthén, B. (1989). Testing for the equivalence of factor covariance and mean structures: The issue of partial measurement invariance. Psychological Bulletin, 105(3), 456–466. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.105.3.456

Byrne, Z. S., Peters, J. M., & Weston, J. W. (2016). The struggle with employee engagement: Measures and construct clarification using five samples. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(9), 1201–1227. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/apl0000124

Carden, S. W., Holtzman, N. S., & Strube, M. J. (2017). CAHOST: An Excel workbook for facilitating the Johnson-Neyman technique for two-way interactions in multiple regression. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 1293. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01293

Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 319–333. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319

Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(3), 464–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834

Chockalingam, M., & Norton, P. J. (2019). Facing fear-provoking stimuli: The role of courage and influence of task-importance. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 14(5), 603–613. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1497685

Cohen, J. (1988). Multiple Regression and Correlation Analysis. In Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed., pp. 407–465). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Corr, P. J. (2008). Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST): Introduction. In The Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality (pp. 1–43). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511819384.002

Donnellan, M. B., Oswald, F. L., Baird, B. M., & Lucas, R. E. (2006). The mini-IPIP scales: Tiny-yet-effective measures of the Big Five factors of personality. Psychological Assessment, 18(2), 192–203. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.18.2.192

Drwal, R. (1995). Adaptacja kwestionariuszy osobowości [Adaptation of personality questionnaires]. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

Drwal, R., & Wilczyńska, J. T. (1980). Opracowanie kwestionariusza aprobaty społecznej [Elaboration of the social desirability questionnaire]. Przegląd Psychologiczny, 23(3), 569–583.

Duckworth, A. L., & Quinn, P. D. (2009). Development and validation of the Short Grit Scale (GRIT-S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91(2), 166–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802634290

Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., & Tsukayama, E. (2021). Revisiting the factor structure of grit: A commentary on Duckworth and Quinn (2009). Journal of Personality Assessment, 103(5), 573–575. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2021.1942022

Dyrdal, O., & Sanner, K. (2022). Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VRET) for fear of spiders: A randomized study. NTNU.

Elliot, A. J. (2006). The hierarchical model of approach-avoidance motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 30(2), 111–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-006-9028-7

Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G* Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149

Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2003). The neuropsychology of anxiety. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198522713.001.0001

Greene, R. R., Galambos, C., & Lee, Y. (2004). Resilience theory: Theoretical and professional conceptualizations. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 8(4), 75–91. https://doi.org/10.1300/J137v08n04_05

Greitemeyer, T., Osswald, S., Fischer, P., & Frey, D. (2007). Civil courage: Implicit theories, related concepts, and measurement. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2(2), 115–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760701228789

Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2014). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Pearson.

Hampson, S. E., Edmonds, G. W., Barckley, M., Goldberg, L. R., Dubanoski, J. P., & Hillier, T. A. (2016). A Big Five approach to self-regulation: Personality traits and health trajectories in the Hawaii longitudinal study of personality and health. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 21(2), 152–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2015.1061676

Hartley, C. A., & Phelps, E. A. (2010). Changing fear: The neurocircuitry of emotion regulation. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(1), 136–146. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2009.121

Hayes, A. F. (2013). Fundamentals of Moderation Analysis. In Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach (pp. 219–266). Guilford Press.

Hayes, A. F., & Matthes, J. (2009). Computational procedures for probing interactions in OLS and logistic regression: SPSS and SAS implementations. Behavior Research Methods, 41(3), 924–936. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.3.924

Hooper, D., Coughlan, J., & Mullen, M. R. (2008). Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6(1), 53–60.

Howard, M. C. (2019). Applying the approach/avoidance framework to understand the relationships between social courage, workplace outcomes, and well-being outcomes. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 14(6), 734–748. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1545043

Howard, M. C., & Alipour, K. K. (2014). Does the courage measure really measure courage? A theoretical and empirical evaluation. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 9(5), 449–459. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.910828

Howard, M. C., & Crayne, M. P. (2019). Persistence: Defining the multidimensional construct and creating a measure. Personality and Individual Differences, 139, 77–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2018.11.005

Howard, M. C., & Reiley, P. J. (2020). Physical courage predicts relevant outcomes in associated contexts: The creation of a measure and empirical analysis into the construct. Journal of Business Research, 110, 80–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.12.015

Jachimowicz, J. M., Wihler, A., Bailey, E. R., & Galinsky, A. D. (2019). Reply to Guo et al. and Credé: Grit-S scale measures only perseverance, not passion, and its supposed subfactors are merely artifactors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(10), 3942–3944.

Jacobson, N. S., & Truax, P. (1991). Clinical significance: A statistical approach to defining meaningful change in psychotherapy research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59(1), 12–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.59.1.12

Klorman, R., Weerts, T. C., Hastings, J. E., Melamed, B. G., & Lang, P. J. (1974). Psychometric description of some specific-fear questionnaires. Behavior Therapy, 5(3), 401–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(74)80008-0

Kolemba, M., & Maciuszek, J. (2013). Perception of risk and risk-taking among the lucky and the luckless. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 44(3), 358–370. https://doi.org/ 10.2478/ppb-2013-0039

Lopez, S. J. (2007). Profiling courage: Introduction to the special issue on courage. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2(2), 79–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760701228722

Łuczyńska, A. (2021). Polska adaptacja kwestionariusza Spider Phobia Questionnaire-15 [Unpublished Master's thesis]. Jagiellonian University.

Norton, P. J., & Weiss, B. J. (2009). The role of courage on behavioral approach in a fear-eliciting situation: A proof-of-concept pilot study. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23(2), 212–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.07.002

Ogińska-Bulik, N., & Juczyński, Z. (2008). Skala pomiaru prężności–SPP-25. Nowiny Psychologiczne, 3, 39–56.

Olatunji, B. O., Woods, C. M., de Jong, P. J., Teachman, B. A., Sawchuk, C. N., & David, B. (2009). Development and initial validation of an abbreviated Spider Phobia Questionnaire using item response theory. Behavior Therapy, 40(2), 114–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2008.04.002

Osswald, S., Greitemeyer, T., Fischer, P., & Frey, D. (2010). What is moral courage? Definition, explication, and classification of a complex construct. In C. L. S. Pury & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The psychology of courage: Modern research on an ancient virtue (pp. 149–164). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12168-008

Polák, J., Rádlová, S., Janovcová, M., Flegr, J., Landová, E., & Frynta, D. (2020). Scary and nasty beasts: Self‐reported fear and disgust of common phobic animals. British Journal of Psychology, 111(2), 297–321. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12409

Pury, C. L. S., & Starkey, C. B. (2010). Is courage an accolade or a process? A fundamental question for courage research. In C. L. S. Pury & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The psychology of courage: Modern research on an ancient virtue (pp. 67–87). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12168-004.

Putman, D. (1997). Psychological courage. Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology, 4(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1353/ppp.1997.0008

Putnick, D. L., & Bornstein, M. H. (2016). Measurement invariance conventions and reporting: The state of the art and future directions for psychological research. Developmental Review, 41, 71–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2016.06.004

Rachman, S. J. (2004). Fear and courage: A psychological perspective. Social Research, 71(1), 149–176.

Richardson, G. E. (2002). The metatheory of resilience and resiliency. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(3), 307–321. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10020

Schmidt, S. (2009). Shall we really do it again? The powerful concept of replication is neglected in the social sciences. Review of General Psychology, 13(2), 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015108

Shepela, S. T., Cook, J., Horlitz, E., Leal, R., Luciano, S., Lutfy, E., Miller, C., Mitchell, G., & Worden, E. (1999). Courageous resistance: A special case of altruism. Theory & Psychology, 9(6), 787–805. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354399096004

Soper, D. S. (2022). A-priori Sample Size Calculator for Structural Equation Models [Software]. Available from https://www.danielsoper.com/statcalc

Steenkamp, J.-B. E., & Baumgartner, H. (1998). Assessing measurement invariance in cross-national consumer research. Journal of Consumer Research, 25(1), 78–90. https://doi.org/10.1086/209528

Studenski, R. (2004). Ryzyko i ryzykowanie: Prace naukowe Uniwersytetu Śląskiego w Katowicach. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.

Tett, R. P., & Guterman, H. A. (2000). Situation trait relevance, trait expression, and cross-situational consistency: Testing a principle of trait activation. Journal of Research in Personality, 34(4), 397–423. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.2000.2292

Tillich, P. (2008). The courage to be. Yale University Press.

Topolewska, E., Skimina, E., Strus, W., Cieciuch, J., & Rowiński, T. (2014). The short IPIP-BFM-20 questionnaire for measuring the Big Five. Roczniki Psychologiczne, 17(2), 385–402.

VanVoorhis, C. W., & Morgan, B. L. (2007). Understanding power and rules of thumb for determining sample sizes. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 3(2), 43–50. https://doi.org/10.20982tqmp.03.2.p043

Wang, J., Sun, D., Jiang, J., Wang, H., Cheng, X., Ruan, Q., & Wang, Y. (2022). The effect of courage on stress: The mediating mechanism of behavioral inhibition and behavioral activation in high-risk occupations. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 961387.

Westland, J. C. (2010). Lower bounds on sample size in structural equation modeling. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 9(6), 476–487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.elerap.2010.07.003

Williams, M. N., Grajales, C. A. G., & Kurkiewicz, D. (2013). Assumptions of multiple regression: Correcting two misconceptions. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 18(1), Article 11. https://doi.org/10.7275/55hn-wk47

Wolpe, J. (1968). Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Conditional Reflex: A Pavlovian Journal of Research & Therapy, 3(4), 234–240. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03000093

Woodard, C. R. (2004). Hardiness and the concept of courage. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 56(3), 173–185. https://doi.org/10.1037/1065-9293.56.3.173

Wrześniewski, K., Sosnowski, T., Jaworowska, A., & Fecenec, D. (2002). Inwentarz stanu i cechy lęku. Polska adaptacja STAI. Podręcznik [State-Trait Anxiety Inventory: Polish adaptation STAI. A handbook]. Psychological Tests Laboratory, Polish Psychological Association.

Wyszyńska, P., Ponikiewska, K., Karaś, D., Najderska, M., & Rogoza, R. (2017). Psychometric properties of the Polish version of the Short Grit Scale. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 48(2), 229–236. https://doi.org/10.1515/ppb-2017-0026